1. State Key Laboratory of Tibetan Plateau Earth System Science, Environment and Resources (TPESER), Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101, Beijing, China; 2. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China
Abstract:[Background] Erosion and sediment generation processes not only respond to climate and land use changes, but also further affect regional ecological environment and sustainable development, which is one of the most important land surface processes. The erosion and sediment generation in cold regions are affected by cryospheric processes such as glacier melting, snowmelt, and soil freeze-thaw. Under the influence of climate change, these processes and sediment flux change have great uncertainty. To analyze the mechanism and future changes of the erosion and sediment generation in cold regions, it is very important to improve the existing hydrological model to quantify the influence of cryospheric elements. [Methods] We conducted a large number of literature reviews based on Web of Science and CNKI databases, summarized the influences of glacier melt, snowmelt and soil freeze-thaw on the erosion and sediment generation and related model algorithms, then compares the applicability of existing distributed hydrological models in cold regions. [Results] 1) Glaciers mainly affect erosion and sediment generation through glacier runoff and glacier bedrock erosion. The calculation of glacier meltwater includes energy balance algorithm, temperature index algorithm and their improved versions, and then glacier runoff is calculated combining with different glacier dynamic algorithm and distribution methods of glacier meltwater in different hydrological models; the impact of bedrock erosion can be obtained by taking the glacier area as a whole to calculate the sediment flux and then coupling it with hydrological model. 2) The snowmelt process mainly affects erosion by increasing surface runoff. Snowmelt is also calculated by energy balance algorithm, temperature index algorithm or its improved versions and then usually treated as rainfall with zero kinetic energy to calculate erosion and sediment flux. 3) The impact of soil freeze-thaw includes freeze-thaw depth affecting runoff, freeze-thaw cycle increasing soil erodibility and freeze-thaw depth limiting the contributing erosion extent, which are mostly calculated by conceptual or empirical methods. 4) The existing hydrological models are relatively complete in calculating runoff under the influences of glacier melt, snowmelt, and soil freeze-thaw, but they do not adequately consider the effects of glacier melt and soil freeze-thaw on erosion and sediment generation. [Conclusions] Based on the above summary, it is suggested that the existing model should add relevant algorithms to refine their model structure, then to enhance the applicability of existing models in cold regions. And in future studies, we can quantify the influence of cryosphere elements on erosion and sediment generation with the improved hydrological model, which will contribute to a better understanding of these processes and their future changes in cold regions.
SYVITSKI J, ÁNGEL J R, SAITO Y, et al. Earth's sediment cycle during the Anthropocene [J]. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, 2022, 3(3): 179.
[2]
GOLOSOV V, WALLING D E. Erosion and sediment problems: Global Hotspots [M].Paris, France: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cutural Organization, 2019: 6.
[3]
张凡, 史晓楠, 曾辰, 等. 青藏高原河流输沙量变化与影响 [J]. 中国科学院院刊, 2019, 34(11): 1274. ZHANG Fan, SHI Xiaonan, ZENG Chen, et al. Variation and influence of riverine sediment transport from Tibetan Plateau, China [J]. Bulletin of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 2019, 34(11): 1274.
[4]
LI Li, NI Jinren, CHANG Fang, et al. Global trends in water and sediment fluxes of the world's large rivers [J]. Science Bulletin, 2020, 65(1): 62.
[5]
LI Dongfeng, LU Xixi, OVEREEM I, et al. Exceptional increases in fluvial sediment fluxes in a warmer and wetter High Mountain Asia[J]. Science, 2021, 374(6567): 599.
[6]
LI Dongfeng, LU Xixi, WALLING D E, et al. High Mountain Asia hydropower systems threatened by climate-driven landscape instability [J]. Nature Geoscience, 2022, 15(7): 520.
[7]
ZHANG Ting, LI Dongfeng, EAST A E, et al. Warming-driven erosion and sediment transport in cold regions [J]. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, 2022, 3(12): 832.
[8]
SERREZE M C, BARRY R G. Processes and impacts of Arctic amplification: A research synthesis [J]. Global and Planetary Change, 2011, 77(1): 85.
[9]
SONG Chunlin, WANG Genxu, SUN Xiangyang, et al. River runoff components change variably and respond differently to climate change in the Eurasian Arctic and Qinghai-Tibet Plateau permafrost regions [J]. Journal of Hydrology, 2021, 601: 126653.
[10]
ZHANG Fan, ZENG Chen, WANG Guanxing, et al. Runoff and sediment yield in relation to precipitation, temperature and glaciers on the Tibetan Plateau [J]. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, 2022, 10(2): 197.
[11]
ZHANG Ting, LI Dongfeng, EAST A E, et al. Shifted sediment-transport regimes by climate change and amplified hydrological variability in cryosphere-fed rivers [J]. Science Advances, 2023, 9(45): eadi5019.
[12]
LI Dongfeng, LI Zhiwei, ZHOU Yinjun, et al. Substantial Increases in the Water and Sediment Fluxes in the Headwater Region of the Tibetan Plateau in Response to Global Warming [J]. Geophysical Research Letters, 2020, 47(11):e2020GL082745.
[13]
SHI Xiaonan, ZHANG Fan, LU Xixi, et al. The response of the suspended sediment load of the headwaters of the Brahmaputra River to climate change: Quantitative attribution to the effects of hydrological, cryospheric and vegetation controls [J]. Global and Planetary Change, 2022, 210:103753.
[14]
ZHANG Ting, LI Dongfeng, KETTNER A J, et al. Constraining dynamic sediment-discharge relationships in cold environments: The Sediment-Availability-Transport (SAT) model [J]. Water Resources Research, 2021, 57(10): 21.
[15]
WARBURTON J. An Alpine proglacial fluvial sediment Budget [J]. Geografiska Annaler Series A-Physical Geography, 1990, 72(3/4): 261.
[16]
STOTT T, MOUNT N. Alpine proglacial suspended sediment dynamics in warm and cool ablation seasons: Implications for global warming [J]. Journal of Hydrology, 2007, 332(3/4): 259.
[17]
AYGVN O, KINNARD C, CAMPEAU S. Responses of soil erosion to warming and wetting in a cold Canadian agricultural catchment[J]. Catena, 2021, 201: 105184.
[18]
WANG Li, ZHANG Fan, WANG Guanxing, et al. Response of soil erosion to climate and subsequent vegetation changes in a high-mountain basin[J]. Sustainability, 2023, 15(4): 3220.
[19]
TIAN P, LU H, FENG W, et al. Large decrease in streamflow and sediment load of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau driven by future climate change: A case study in Lhasa River Basin[J]. Catena, 2020, 187: 104340.
[20]
CARRIVICK J L, TWEED F S. Deglaciation controls on sediment yield: Towards capturing spatio-temporal variability [J]. Earth-Science Reviews, 2021, 221: 19.
[21]
HERMAN F, DE DONCKER F, DELANEY I, et al. The impact of glaciers on mountain erosion [J]. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, 2021, 2(6): 422.
[22]
尹振良, 冯起, 刘时银, 等. 水文模型在估算冰川径流研究中的应用现状 [J]. 冰川冻土, 2016, 38(1): 248. YIN Zhenliang, FENG Qi, LIU Shiyin, et al. The application progress of hydrological model in quantifying the contribution of glacier runoff to total watershed runoff [J]. Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology, 2016, 38(1): 248.
[23]
TERINK W, LUTZ A F, SIMONS G W H, et al. SPHY v2.0: Spatial processes in hydrology [J]. Geoscientific Model Development, 2015, 8(7): 2009.
[24]
LUO Yi, ARNOLD J, LIU Shiyin, et al. Inclusion of glacier processes for distributed hydrological modeling at basin scale with application to a watershed in Tianshan Mountains, Northwest China [J]. Journal of Hydrology, 2013, 477: 72.
[25]
赵求东, 叶柏生, 丁永建, 等. 典型寒区流域水文过程模拟及分析 [J]. 冰川冻土, 2011, 33(3):595. ZHAO Qiudong, YE Baisheng, DING Yongjian, et al. Hydrological process of a typical catchment in cold region: Simulation and analysis [J]. Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology, 2011, 33(3): 595.
[26]
POMEROY J W, BROWN T, FANG X, et al. The cold regions hydrological modelling platform for hydrological diagnosis and prediction based on process understanding [J]. Journal of Hydrology, 2022, 615: 128711
[27]
WILLIS I C, ARNOLD N S, BROCK B W. Effect of snowpack removal on energy balance, melt and runoff in a small supraglacial catchment [J]. Hydrological Processes, 2002, 16(14): 2721.
[28]
KRAUSE P. Quantifying the impact of land use changes on the water balance of large catchments using the J2000 model [J]. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 2002, 27: 663.
[29]
RÉVEILLET M, VINCENT C, SIX D, et al. Which empirical model is best suited to simulate glacier mass balances? [J]. Journal of Glaciology, 2017, 63(237): 39.
[30]
TODD WALTER M, BROOKS E S, MCCOOL D K, et al. Process-based snowmelt modeling: Does it require more input data than temperature-index modeling? [J]. Journal of Hydrology, 2005, 300(1): 65.
[31]
LINSBAUER A, PAUL F, MACHGUTH H, et al. Comparing three different methods to model scenarios of future glacier change in the Swiss Alps [J]. Annals of Glaciology, 2013, 54(63): 241.
[32]
SU F, ZHANG L, OU T, et al. Hydrological response to future climate changes for the major upstream river basins in the Tibetan Plateau [J]. Global and Planetary Change, 2016, 136: 82.
[33]
PAUL F, MAISCH M, ROTHENBVHLER C, et al. Calculation and visualisation of future glacier extent in the Swiss Alps by means of hypsographic modelling [J]. Global and Planetary Change, 2007, 55(4): 343.
[34]
SEIBERT J, VIS M J P, KOHN I, et al. Technical note: Representing glacier geometry changes in a semi-distributed hydrological model [J]. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 2018, 22(4): 2211.
[35]
IMMERZEEL W W, VAN BEEK L P H, KONZ M, et al. Hydrological response to climate change in a glacierized catchment in the Himalayas [J]. Climatic Change, 2012, 110(3/4): 721.
[36]
姚盼. 青藏高原冰川侵蚀对地形的影响及其控制因素研究[D]. 兰州: 兰州大学, 2020:10. YAO Pan. The controlling factors of glacial erosion and its influence on landscapes in the Tibetan Plateau [D]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou University, 2020:10.
[37]
HALLET B, HUNTER L, BOGEN J. Rates of erosion and sediment evacuation by glaciers: A review of field data and their implications [J]. Global and Planetary Change, 1996, 12(1/2/3/4): 213.
[38]
IVERSON N R. A theory of glacial quarrying for landscape evolution models [J]. Geology, 2012, 40(8): 679.
[39]
DELANEY I, WERDER M A, FARINOTTI D. A numerical model for fluvial transport of subglacial sediment [J]. Journal of Geophysical Research-Earth Surface, 2019, 124(8): 2197.
[40]
DELANEY I, ANDERSON L, HERMAN F. Modeling the spatially distributed nature of subglacial sediment transport and erosion [J]. Earth Surface Dynamics, 2023, 11(4): 663.
[41]
陈飞. 青藏高原纳木错流域融水侵蚀强度评价及产沙特性研究[D]. 北京: 中国农业大学, 2016:85. CHEN Fei. Study on evaluation of erosion intensity and sediment characteristics by meltwater flow in the Nam Co basin on the Tibetan Plateau [D]. Beijing: China Agricultural University, 2016:85.
[42]
赵艳霞. 高寒山区冰川河流剥蚀特征研究:以绒布河和科其喀尔河为例[D]. 呼和浩特: 内蒙古大学, 2021:12. ZHAO Yanxia. The denudation characteristics of glacial rivers in Alpine Mountain: Take Rongbuk River and Keqikar River as Examples [D]. Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University, 2021:12.
[43]
王冠星. 祁连山八宝河流域水沙过程变化与输沙量模拟方法研究[D]. 北京: 中国科学院大学(青藏高原研究所), 2020:55. WANG Guanxing. Runoff and sediment regime changes and sediment load simulation strategy study of the Babao River in the Qilian Mountains[D]. Beijing: University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research), 2020:55.
[44]
ZENG Chen, ZHANG Fan, LU Xixi, et al. Improving sediment load estimations: The case of the Yarlung Zangbo River (the upper Brahmaputra, Tibet Plateau) [J]. Catena, 2018, 160: 201.
[45]
COSTA A, ANGHILERI D, MOLNAR P. Hydroclimatic control on suspended sediment dynamics of a regulated Alpine catchment: A conceptual approach [J]. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 2018, 22(6): 3421.
[46]
ANDERMANN C, CRAVE A, GLOAGUEN R, et al. Connecting source and transport: Suspended sediments in the Nepal Himalayas [J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2012, 351: 158.
[47]
SYVITSKI J P M, ALCOTT J M. RIVER3: Simulation of river discharge and sediment transport [J]. Computers & Geosciences, 1995, 21(1): 89.
[48]
BANIYA M B, ASAEDA T, SHIVARAM K C, et al. Hydraulic Parameters for Sediment Transport and Prediction of Suspended Sediment for Kali Gandaki River Basin, Himalaya, Nepal [J]. Water, 2019, 11(6): 1229.
[49]
GAN M, CHEN C L P, CHEN G, et al. On some separated algorithms for separable nonlinear least squares problems [J]. IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics, 2018, 48(10): 2866.
[50]
范昊明, 武敏, 周丽丽, 等. 融雪侵蚀研究进展[J]. 水科学进展, 2013, 24(1): 146. FAN Haoming, WU Min, ZHOU Lili, et al. Review on the snowmelt erosion [J]. Advances in Water Science, 2013, 24(1): 146.
[51]
WU Yuyang, OUYANG Wei, HAO Zengchao, et al. Snowmelt water drives higher soil erosion than rainfall water in a mid-high latitude upland watershed [J]. Journal of Hydrology, 2018, 556: 438.
[52]
ZHAO Dongmei, XIONG Donghong, ZHANG Baojun, et al. Long-term response of runoff and sediment load to spatiotemporally varied rainfall in the Lhasa River basin, Tibetan Plateau [J]. Journal of Hydrology, 2023, 618: 129154.
[53]
OLLESCH G, SUKHANOVSKI Y, KISTNER I, et al. Characterization and modelling of the spatial heterogeneity of snowmelt erosion [J]. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 2005, 30(2): 197.
[54]
陈仁升, 康尔泗, 丁永建. 中国高寒区水文学中的一些认识和参数 [J]. 水科学进展, 2014, 25(3): 307. CHEN Rensheng, KANG Ersi, DING Yongjian. Some knowledge on and parameters of China's alpine hydrology [J]. Advances in Water Science, 2014, 25(3): 307.
[55]
TAHMASEBI NASAB M, CHU Xuefeng. Do sub-daily temperature fluctuations around the freezing temperature alter macro-scale snowmelt simulations? [J]. Journal of Hydrology, 2021, 596: 125683.
[56]
林燕, 谢云, 王晓岚. 土壤水蚀模型中的融雪侵蚀模拟研究[J]. 水土保持学报, 2003, 17(3): 16. LIN Yan, XIE Yun, WANG Xiaolan. Review of studies on snowmelt erosion in soil water erosion models [J]. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 2003, 17(3): 16.
[57]
WISCHMEIER W H, SMITH D D. Predicting rainfall erosion losses: A guide to conservation planning[M]. Washington D C:Department of Agriculture, Science and Education Administration, 1978:7.
[58]
刘宝元, 谢云, 张科利. 土壤侵蚀预报模型[M]. 北京: 中国科学技术出版社, 2001:33. LIU Baoyuan, XIE Yun, ZHANG Keli. Soil loss prediction model [M]. Beijing: China Science and Technology Press, 2001:33.
[59]
KENNETH G R, GEORGE R F, GLENN A W, et al. RUSLE: Revised universal soil loss equation [J]. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 1991, 46(1): 30.
[60]
FLANAGAN D C, NEARING M A. USDA-water erosion prediction project hillslope profile and watershed model documentation[M]//Harmon R S, Doe W W. Landscape Erosion and Evolution Modeling. III eds. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2001:165.
[61]
张玉斌, 郑粉莉, 贾媛媛. WEPP模型概述[J]. 水土保持研究, 2004, 11(4): 146. ZHANG Yubin, ZHENG Fenli, JIA Yuanyuan. WEPP model and its application [J]. Research of Soil and Water Conservation, 2004, 11(4): 146.
[62]
EEKHOUT J P C, MILLARES-VALENZUELA A, MARTÍNEZ-SALVADOR A, et al. A process-based soil erosion model ensemble to assess model uncertainty in climate-change impact assessments [J]. Land Degradation & Development, 2021, 32(7): 2409.
[63]
NEITSCH S L, ARNOLD J G, KINIRY J R, et al. Soil and water assessment tool theoretical documentation version 2009[R]. Texas Water Resources Institute, 2011.
[64]
ARNOLD J G, WILLIAMS J R. The EPIC model[M]//Computer models of watershed hydrology. Highlands Ranch: Water Resources Publications, 1995:847.
[65]
GOLSON K F, TSEGAYE T D, RAJBHANDARI N B, et al. Evaluating modified rainfall erosivity factors in the universal soil loss equation [C]//IGARSS 2000. IEEE 2000 International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium. Taking the Pulse of the Planet: The Role of Remote Sensing in Managing the Environment. Proceedings (Cat. No.00CH37120): 2000(5): 2017.
[66]
阳勇, 陈仁升, 叶柏生, 等. 寒区典型下垫面冻土水热过程对比研究 (Ⅰ):模型对比[J]. 冰川冻土, 2013, 35(6): 1545. YANG Yong, CHEN Rensheng, YE Baisheng, et al. Heat and water transfer processes on the typical underlying surfaces of frozen soil in cold regions (Ⅰ): Model Comparison [J]. Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology, 2013, 35(6): 1545.
[67]
ZHANG Lei, REN Feipeng, LI Hao, et al. The influence mechanism of freeze-thaw on soil erosion: A review [J]. Water, 2021, 13(8): 1010.
[68]
关志成. 寒区流域水文模拟研究[D]. 南京: 河海大学, 2002:41. GUAN Zhicheng. Hydrological simulation of cold zone in China [D]. Nanjing: Hohai University, 2002:41.
[69]
李明亮, 杨大文, 侯杰, 等. 黑龙江流域分布式水文模型研究[J]. 水力发电学报, 2021, 40(1): 65. LI Mingliang, YANG Dawen, HOU Jie, et al. Distributed hydrological model of Heilongjiang River basin [J]. Journal of Hydroelectric Engineering, 2021, 40(1): 65.
[70]
WANG Genxu, MAO Tianxu, CHANG Juan, et al. Processes of runoff generation operating during the spring and autumn seasons in a permafrost catchment on semi-arid plateaus [J]. Journal of Hydrology, 2017, 550: 307.
[71]
LINDSTROM G, PERS C, ROSBERG J, et al. Development and testing of the HYPE (Hydrological Predictions for the Environment) water quality model for different spatial scales [J]. Hydrology Research, 2010, 41(3/4): 295.
[72]
QI Junyu, ZHANG Xuesong, WANG Qianfeng. Improving hydrological simulation in the Upper Mississippi River Basin through enhanced freeze-thaw cycle representation [J]. Journal of Hydrology, 2019, 571: 605.
[73]
CHERKAUER K A, LETTENMAIER D P. Hydrologic effects of frozen soils in the upper Mississippi River basin [J]. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 1999, 104(D16): 19599.
[74]
CHEN R, WANG G, YANG Y, et al. Effects of cryospheric change on alpine hydrology: Combining a model with observations in the upper reaches of the Hei River, China [J]. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 2018, 123(7): 3414.
[75]
WANG Lei, ZHOU Jing, QI Jia, et al. Development of a land surface model with coupled snow and frozen soil physics [J]. Water Resources Research, 2017, 53(6): 5085.
[76]
QI Jia, WANG Lei, ZHOU Jing, et al. Coupled snow and frozen ground physics improves cold region hydrological simulations: An evaluation at the upper Yangtze River Basin (Tibetan Plateau) [J]. Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres, 2019, 124(23): 12985.
[77]
BRYAN R B. Soil erodibility and processes of water erosion on hillslope [J]. Geomorphology, 2000, 32(3/4): 385.
[78]
FERRICK M G, GATTO L W. Quantifying the effect of a freeze-thaw cycle on soil erosion: Laboratory experiments [J]. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 2010, 30(10): 1305.
[79]
SUN B Y, XIAO J B, LI Z B, et al. An analysis of soil detachment capacity under freeze-thaw conditions using the Taguchi method [J]. Catena, 2018, 162: 100.
[80]
LIU Hongyuan, YANG Yang, ZHANG Keli, et al. Soil erosion as affected by freeze-thaw regime and initial soil moisture content [J]. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 2017, 81(3): 459.
[81]
XIA Weitong, NIU Cencen, YU Qingbao, et al. Experimental investigation of the erodibility of soda saline-alkali soil under freeze-thaw cycle from a microscopic view [J]. Catena, 2023, 232: 14.
[82]
RENARD K G. Predicting Soil Erosion by Water: A guide to conservation planning with the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE)[M]. Washington D C: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 1997:81.
[83]
LI Dongfeng, OVEREEM I, KETTNER A J, et al. Air temperature regulates erodible landscape, water, and sediment fluxes in the permafrost-dominated catchment on the Tibetan Plateau[J]. Water Resources Research, 2021, 57(2): e2020WR028193.
[84]
GAO Xiaofeng, SHI Xxiaonan, LEI Tingwu. Influence of thawed soil depth on rainfall erosion of frozen bare meadow soil in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau[J]. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 2021, 46(10): 1953.
[85]
WANG Wei, LI Zhanbin, YANG Rui, et al. Experimental study of freeze-thaw/water compound erosion and hydraulic conditions as affected by thawed depth on loessal slope [J]. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 2020, 8: 10.
[86]
郑颖. 黑河上游冻土小流域水沙过程与主控因素[D]. 北京:中国科学院大学(青藏高原研究所), 2023:36. ZHENG Ying. Analysis of runoff and sediment processes and its control factors in a small frozen watershed of the upper Heihe River [D]. Beijing: University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research), 2023:36.
[87]
ALI K F, DE BOER D H. Spatially distributed erosion and sediment yield modeling in the upper Indus River basin [J]. Water Resources Research, 2010, 46(8):W08504.